Essay on Sexual Addiction part 2Essay Writing Service

Essay on Sexual Addiction part 2Essay Writing Service Essay on Sexual Addiction part 2 Essay on Sexual Addiction part 2Essay on   Sexual Addiction part 1Thus, sexual addiction in men is manifested in an unusually high demand for conventional sexual intercourse. Sometimes sexual addiction turns into the urge for unusual forms of sex, and may interfere with physical and moral safety of others (Giugliano, 2003; Schaeffer, 2009). For example, it leads to violence, incest, homosexual relationships, compulsive masturbation, etc. In general, male addicts fear most to appear in ridiculous situation, look helpless and weak, and usually use sex to assert themselves.In turn, sexual addiction in women is most commonly expressed in promiscuity or sex with strangers. Addicted women most often need sex to get away from the real relationship. They get hooked on sex, escaping from loneliness, as well as to convince themselves that their women charms are still strong. Entering a new sexual relationship, sexually dependent women temporarily raise their self-esteem, substitute the sens e of spiritual emptiness with the sense of power and euphoria of sexual conquests, but in most cases they are left deprived of communication and tenderness (Giugliano, 2003; Schaeffer, 2009).At the same time, addiction always covers a burning desire to avoid the feeling of one’s own worthlessness. Observations also show that addicts are in fact driven by a thirst for intimacy and warmth, but they do not know how to achieve this.Thus, in-depth interviews conducted by Giugliano (2003, p. 278-84) showed that the most common representations of male sexual addicts of themselves are: 1) I am inherently a bad worthless person; 2) no one will love me as much as I do; 3) my needs will never be satisfied if I have to rely on others; 4) sexual satisfaction is my most important need. Female sexual addicts have similar beliefs: 1) I am powerless; 2) I will always be alone or will feel lonely; 3) I will always be abandoned; 4) my body is shameless (vicious), disgusting. These core beliefs, in turn, lead to behavioral norms that define the actions of sexual addicts. For example, the belief that â€Å"No one will love me as much as I do,† leads to the misconception that equates sex to love: Someone can love me, if one feels sexual excitement to me† or â€Å"If someone has sex with me it proves that I can be loved.† In turn, the core belief of a woman that she will always be abandoned generates the setting: â€Å"I will not be abandoned, if I learn to seduce.† In an effort to assert themselves or escape from grief and loneliness, they again enter into a sexual relationship to feel confident and achieve short-term enjoyment of life replacing the concept of love with the concept of sex.Typically, sexual addicts go through the following phases of sexual addiction (basing on reports by Young, 2008; Schaeffer, 2009; Coleman-Kennedy Pendley, 2002):Preoccupation with thoughts on sexual subjects bearing obsessive nature. Constant return to these thou ghts leads to the situation when they occupy an increasing amount of time becoming a favorite topic of reflection. An addict gets some pleasure at this time, the mind begins to set differently, fantasizing about sex is becoming increasingly important. The perception of many things changes. Surrounding people start to be viewed through the prism of preoccupation of thinking and imagination with sexual topics. They are seen primarily as sexual objects. Other activities are considered as necessary but unpleasant, the ones that do not bring joy. This period may vary over time, it may not be accompanied by specific actions, but the emergence of certain preferences and thoughts on how to implement them and fixing them in the mind.Stage of behavior ritualization with the development of schemes that lead to sexual behavior (including thoughts and fantasies), in which one event follows another in sequence. Addiction involves sexual implementation and becomes a daily ritual for the implement of which a special time is reserved. Entry into the cycle of ritual behavior does not tolerate distractions from others. Ritualization of preoccupation with sex is more important than the specific implementation since it is associated with a changed psychological state of consciousness causing psychological relaxation. This process consumes a lot of time and energy. Gradual â€Å"inclusion† of activities related to the preparation to enter this state is possible. All this is often not seen by others as sexual addict seeks to preserve the image of normality in relation to the outside world, showing it the false self, trying to look like a man who does not have an addiction.Stage of compulsive sexual behavior with the phenomenon of loss of control inherent to other addictions. Having entered this phase, an addict cannot control one’s actions, leaving a â€Å"trail† behind, risking to reveal oneself, or inflict psychological or physical damage to oneself. The one i s powerless in preventing the behavior. It is difficult to stop. Control over the various types of sexual activity is lost. After the implementation of compulsive behavior, the understanding of the need to stop emerges bringing the unrealizable promises. This behavior is accompanied by a further intensification of the inferiority complex.Stage of disaster or despair, coming after the troubles caused by certain events, such as punishment or disease. The person feels absolute powerlessness, despair, and hatred to one’s own personality. During this period, negative feelings toward oneself are growing, provoking exacerbation of self-destructive instinct and the emergence of suicidal thoughts.In the end, the consequences of sexual addiction may be organism fraying, venereal and infectious diseases, depression arising due to the constant need to find a new sexual partner, which turns sexual addiction in a socially dangerous disease that requires prevention and treatment, despite th e fact that the sick person usually resists treatment not considering oneself pathologically dependent on sexual addiction.Coping with sexual addiction: therapy optionsIndeed, as Parker and Guest (2003) state, absolute majority of sexually addicted people are confident in their full normality. Therefore, the first and most important step to timely treatment is to convince the person in the presence of psychological problems. Unfortunately, in the majority of cases, only a strong shock like the loss of job, family, or serious health problems may cause the patient to understand how sick he or she was (Coleman-Kennedy Pendley, 2002, p.144). Further, patients who faced the reality of their dependency often try to resolve the conflict immediately, â€Å"by force†. In such cases, their actions usually lead to an opposite reaction, and all efforts seem to be in vain. In order to understand how to get rid of sexual addiction, one must admit, above all, that positive progress cannot be reached through one’s individual effort only. As Young (2008) claims, this is the first and most difficult step on the road to recovery. Here, sex-addicts may start from finding Internet communities of people with similar dependence and life experiences. Such communication will help solve some of the problems and find a way out of a state of dependence. However, when a person reaches the solution to make a qualitative change in one’s own life, professional advice and psychological support are absolutely irreplaceable.It should be said here that addictive sexual behavior bears continuous and irresistible character, as soon as it becomes the only condition that decreases anxiety and fear (Matà ©, 2012; Schaeffer, 2009). Addictions are generally difficult to be corrected, but psychoanalytic treatment proves to at least drastically reduce the quantitative aspect. Therefore, one of the main tasks of psychotherapy is to teach a patient to change negative beliefs, generat ing negative neural excitation and let one know that it is possible to cope with anxiety and stress in some other ways, not only through sex, using different internal forces of the body (Parker Guest 2003; Young 2008). First of all, a dependent person must learn to socialize properly, because the ability to communicate inside real social environment helps to get rid of loneliness, successfully create new relationships or restore old ones. Therapy should also typically focused on the identification and treatment of comorbid psychiatric and personality disorders and related dependencies, such as alcohol and drug addictions.To achieve these goals, different programs and psychotherapeutic techniques are currently applied, including hypno-suggestive psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, cognitive techniques and dialectical behavioral therapy, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing, and positive psychology, along with art and/or music therapy, intensive psycho-educational programs, gener al life style instruction and spiritual counseling (Parker Guest, 2003; Young, 2008; Giugliano, 2003). According to Young (2008, p. 32), the best results in the treatment of sex addiction are demonstrated by group therapy courses, especially if such groups involve people close to the patient. In particular, psychotherapists do not consider sexual addiction a sufficient ground for divorce and call friends and relatives to support the desire of the patient to undergo treatment. Participating in the family programs, family members get more information about the disease as such and their role in the process of treatment. Eventually, family members sometimes decide to begin the treatment themselves in order to solve their own dysfunctional behavior patterns and get rid of the pain (Parker Guest 2003; Young, 2008).In severe cases, psychiatrists sometimes prescribe medicines for the treatment of sexual addiction through controlling behavior, and those mainly include antidepressants, seda tives, and hormones of serotonin and progesterone (Parker Guest, 2003, p.19). It should be noted, however, that the impact of medicines is known to be very limited (Young, 2008, p. 33). To achieve considerable results, medication should be combined with psychological treatment as well as a set of measures to restore correct biorhythms. Thus, in addition to psychiatric examinations and tests on dependences, an important step of treatment is to conduct biochemical testing, the evaluation of lifestyle and nutrition, as well as the full medical examination. Based on the results of laboratory tests, a nutritionist can create a special nutrition program, complemented by the use of food additives. In addition to optimizing physical health, detoxication programs and optimal diet are also directed at restoring the biochemistry of patient’s brain and normalization of neurotransmitters that reduce cravings for compulsive sexual behavior (Young, 2008, p. 34-35, Matà ©, 2012, p. 61). Tr eatment may also include amino acid therapy and herbal medicine.Overall, it is quite easy to put an end to compulsive sexual behavior in the clinical setting. Meanwhile, after the discharge from treatment centers, a significant portion in patients often re-experience anxiety, depression, insomnia and/or craving for previously observed behavior patterns, and part of them experience absolute failure to adapt changes and return to â€Å"self-treatment† of stress (Parker Guest, 2003, p.15). Therefore, the next crucial step in coping with progressing lust should be the total displacement of obsessive feelings of patient’s life. This involves getting rid of all things related to sexual obsession: video with sexual content, computer games of erotic nature, erotic newspapers and magazines, setting filters that block sex web addresses and spam mail, as well as all other items that are related to sex or remind of it (Young, 2008, p.35). This advice not only helps to control sex ual addiction, but also relieves from the fear that these things will be detected by an outsider. Generally, as Parker and Guest (2003, p. 18) reasonably marks, coping with sexual addiction, patients face a vital necessity to rethink their habits, as soon as the latter may either lead to the dependence or be a part of it.On the way to finding internal control, sexually addicted individuals could also be advised to introduce training programs in the gym and outdoors into their daily regime, devote themselves to meditation and yoga lessons, and indulge in other techniques promoting relaxation, such as massage, acupuncture, hydrotherapy, and reflexology. Moreover, at the stage of rehabilitation, addicts may still be accompanied by a mentor or therapist, maintaining their patients in building new relationships with family, colleagues, friends and society, and adapt their lifestyle to the recovery program principles. Post-treatment support may last from several days to several years. At the same time, it is important to understand that unlike the treatment of drug and alcohol addiction, gambling and other heavy dependency, in this case, doctors do not require the patient completely â€Å"sing off† sexual life, and that’s a major point encouraging for healing success.ConclusionSexual addiction should be understood as a compulsive sexual behavior that is subconsciously used to achieve psychological comfort and pleasure, and is characterized by the loss of control over sexual impulses and continuous increase in their frequency, the emergence of the negative consequences of uncontrolled behavior and disregard of them, as well as withdrawal syndrome after prolonged abstinence. The presence of these signs should serve as an impetus for a person to find a solution to get rid of excessive sexual addiction.Just as in cases of other addictions, sexual addiction is always a way to escape from reality, from one own self and one’s own feelings. Individuals with this type of addiction show to experience numerous emotional difficulties: tendency to low mood, impulsivity, low self-esteem, feelings of guilt and shame, inner emptiness, a habit to hide their problems from the loved ones, inability to experience pleasure from other sources, and combination with other addictions. Despite the external search for physiological pleasure, addicts are in fact driven by a thirst for intimacy and internal warmth, but they do not know how to achieve this. Such people wants to be loved, but simply cannot create the model of relations, which would provide the normal and strong relationships with the opposite sex. The reasons for the development of pathology are often found in infantile trauma, causing the disorder of sexual structure of personality: for example, childhood rape, unsuccessful first sexual experience, parents’ sexual misconduct, wrong set of priorities they established, hyperstimulating sexualized relationship with father, demonstr ative exception of a child from parental love relationships, as well as general lack of love, care, and attention from parents.Meanwhile, sexual addiction should be viewed as a psychological and social problem that requires correction. Otherwise, the growing number of people becomes not only doomed to constant loneliness, but also experiences the sense of insecurity, shame, remorse, and depression. In addition, the risk to human health carried by a frequent change of sexual partners also needs to be considered.Being the disorder of the body, mind and spirit, sexual addiction should be treated through a multi-dimensional approach, involving psychological therapy, detoxication and relaxation programs, nutrition and lifestyle adjustment. Thus, therapeutic techniques may include hypno-suggestive psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, cognitive techniques and dialectical behavioral therapy, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing, and positive psychology, art and music therapy, intensive p sycho-educational programs, general life style instruction and spiritual counseling, healthy dieting, physical training, massage, meditation and yoga courses. The main task of therapy lies in eliminating the root causes that led to the emergence of addiction, as well as teaching addicts to re-adapt to the social environment.

Communication and Language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Communication and Language - Essay Example It is always good to focus on your positive experiences (Campbell, 1957). If Thais do bring up a complaint with you, such as how polluted parts of Bangkok are, or apologize for how dirty their factory is, it is best not to agree with them directly, but simply state 'It's fine--don't worry about it.' Be careful not to give too much praise in regards to a Thai's possessions, as he or she may feel embarrassed, or obligated to give you the item in question. It is best to give general praise, such as 'You have a wonderful office.' Age is also a common question, especially if you are not yet going bald or grey! Direct replies are appreciated, but can be avoided if you don't feel comfortable replying (Campbell, 1957). 'I feel like I'm 21 again!' is a good example of an indirect response. Be aware that Thais will often state bluntly that you are either fat or fatter than the last time they saw you. Don't take offence at this and simply laugh it off and give a simple reason--usually all the delicious Thai food you have been enjoying recently. There is no need to reply with a similar comment. The Thai language uses a phonetic alphabet of 44 consonants and 32 vowels (Noochoochai, 1978). All syllables must contain a vowel sound, but may begin and/or end with a consonant sound. A syllable which ends in a vowel sound is called open, and a syllable which ends in a consonant is called closed.

ABC CPA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ABC CPA - Essay Example The limitations of internal control system include the aspect that due to the cost effective nature of the control system certain non-effective but useful controls are emitted. The other limitations include the aspect that designing as well as establishing efficient internal controls can be quite a difficult task due to lack of knowledge of staff to operate such systems. Internal control system might not always reflect altered operating conditions (Gupta 100-200). Internal control system has certain procedures which are illustrated by the help of two examples. Firstly, the internal control system should be served with proper Information Technologies (IT). IT helps the auditors to control the account related entries correctly and reduces the risk of wrong or emitted entry. This is because IT assists to store the data correctly and the stored data can be simultaneously cross-checked, consequently allowing to rectify the faults and can recognize the missing entry. This internal control process can be implemented by ABC Company to its auditing department by providing IT related requirements such as computers and through proper mode of communication. Computers will help to store the transactions related to accounts and communication process will assist the auditors to collect all information and documents related to accounts within its premises (Sai, â€Å"Internal Control and Auditing In IT Environment†). The other example of internal control procedures is that handed over duties and liabilities should be familiar and communicated to employee properly by the company’s higher level officials. This procedure helps the management and the subordinates to plan and to work out the strategies sufficiently by which the objective of the specified task can be achieved efficiently. This procedure of internal control can be implemented by ABC Company through

Information Use Essay Example for Free

Information Use Essay In today’s business environment information is the most important asset a business has, this information helps to support, maintain, develop and track its daily activities. The next logical step is implementing a system that is conducive and geared towards this goal. With the help of its information system, and its information technology department, managers, sales people, the operations department and others with access to this information have a handy tool to help them do their work on a daily basis. The structure of the information system is paramount on how accessible this information is to the people that depend upon it to complete their normal workday. The managers and IT department work closely together to agree upon and decide on an information system that will be feasible to the business itself, thus setting up a system that will be beneficial to the business itself. In my previous workplace, this was a real estate company that focused on short sales and loan modifications. Our information was provided by the homeowner, this information consisted of their mortgage statement, bank records, hardship letters describing why they needed the short sales or the loan modification, and a list of their debt-income ratio and any foreclosure information. The database we worked on was a system called Salesforce; this system enabled us to keep track of the calls we had to make and document all details of that call. It contained all of the information we needed to accomplish this task, it held clients pertinent data, the banks that we dealt with and a method to track the goals we had to accomplish each week. This system was also an ERM (electronic records management database) we had the ability to scan and upload pertinent client information such as three months of bank statements, paystubs, and hardship letters, foreclosure notices and current mortgage statements. It was very user friendly and had the ability to be modified towards the needs of the company using it. That being said management asked us to make suggestions on what additions we saw or felt that would help make our jobs easy and more efficient. The short sale team made several suggestions to add to Salesforce, thereby making it more specified for our daily tasks. The short sale team was not the only ones using Salesforce, our sales team that generated the leads or clients were the first line of defense; they had to enter the client’s information into Salesforce and scan all the documents related to a homeowner’s situation. The sales team was also responsible for contacting the homeowners to send updated and current documents pertinent to their short sales or loan modifications. In essence Salesforce was also used as a data management system, it had the ability to store all data, generate sales reports, processing, integrating, distributing, securing, and archiving data effectively for current and future use. Accessing Salesforce was readily available if we were out of the office as well, we had the capability to log in and view reports, or if a new client was added, and if we needed information to set up an appraisal that was requested by the bank before the short sale was approved. This ability was very handy for the real estate agent and the processor handling the account, the ability to access the main database with all pertinent information about the client away from the office was an excellent tool that Salesforce offered. Maintenance of Salesforce was managed by our small IT staff, any problems with the system was corrected or fixed very quickly, as the licenses held by Salesforce enabled the IT staff to manage the database as an in-house system, therefore they did not have to contact anyone with any issues. At the same time the permissions on Salesforce were very strict, a person’s user id and password only allowed access to certain parts, the short sales team could not modify or change anything, especially any client information or access the sales departments input and vice versa. This made sense, because there was very important information on the database, the client’s financial data and mortgage information, very sensitive information. In essence, the database that the company used in my opinion was user friendly and seemed to address the needs of the business, in this case a real estate office that held important and sensitive financial data, credit reports and mortgage information. The system enabled us to handle the flow of information and daily activities easy, made access to running reports quickly and efficiently. Further, management was able to view and track completion of daily tasks and weekly goals to generate reports quickly.

The Square Deal: Social Reform to Avoid Disaster Essay -- essays resea

The Square Deal: Social Reform to Avoid Disaster   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  America at the turn of the century was a very different place than it is today. The industrial revolution had set into motion a series of events that empowered and enriched some and nearly enslaved others. Theodore Roosevelt’s â€Å"Square Deal† was a necessary response to growing social unrest. A severely unequal distribution of wealth along with poor living and working conditions were leading workers and capitalists to increasingly extreme means. By enacting a large body of legislation intended to set right the wrongs in society and using whatever force necessary, Roosevelt avoided what could have been a popular revolution of the working class.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The purpose of this essay is to develop a better understanding of Roosevelt’s â€Å"Square Deal†. An examination of historical events will provide a clear picture of the outlook in America during the time of Roosevelt’s presidency that led to the necessity of the legislation and presidential actions that characterized Progressive Party politics. Roosevelt’s response was nothing short of precisely what was necessary to remedy the social unrest that was overtaking the working people of America.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As is the case with any major public policy, the â€Å"Square Deal† had its roots in beliefs set forth in the United States Constitution and the basic tenets of Democracy. Without support, large scale changes to the system go down in history as simply another idealistic effort. Roosevelt believed in his ideas and had a way of pushing policies through that resulted in sweeping changes that avoided catastrophe. Every conscious of the possibility of revolution, Roosevelt sought to avoid it by any means necessary.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Beginning in the 1800’s, the face of America was changing. As the Industrial Revolution took a firm hold here and around the world, the everyday life of common Americans was affected in almost unimaginable ways. Between 1885 and 1945, a sweeping change was taking place throughout the world. Large scale mechanization as well as new modern modes of transportation and communication changed the way people looked at the world (Rowland, 1997, p. 14). As thousands of new jobs were created, a large scale urban migration began. People were leaving the far... ... 10, 2005 from SIRS Knowledge Source at http://www.sirs.com Pure Food and Drug Act. Retrieved on March 30, 2005 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/rcah/html/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ah_072600_purefoodandd.htm Rowland, P. (1997). Designing the modern world: the messages of objects, and design,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  shape our perception of the modern world. Carnegie Magazine, 8, 14+. Sherman Antitrust Act. Retrieved on March 30, 2005 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.bartleby.com/65/sh/ShermanA.html Thayer, W.R. (1919). The Square Deal in action.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Retrieved March 15, 2005 from http://www.bartleby.com The Interstate Commerce Act. Retrieved on March 30, 2005 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h921.html Wattenberg, B and Mazzetti, M. (1998). Rough riding into the 20th century. American Legion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Magazine, 28, 32-36.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Rational Choice Theory Essay

â€Å"Man is a rational animal who always loses his temper when he is called upon to act in accordance with the dictates of reason. † As seen from Oscar Wilde’s famous quote, rationality is one of the most crucial and controversial subjects in studying human behavior. To study and examine this rationality, numerous scholars have tried to establish their own theories and generalize their explanation with empirical evidences from real world, which ultimately produces so called, the theory of rational choice. Rational Choice Theory is an approach to understand human behavior. The approach has long been the dominant paradigm in economics, but in recent several decades it has become more widely used in other fileds such as Sociology, Political Science, and Anthropology. The main purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of rational choice theory and briefly discuss its basic assumptions, critiques, political implication, and alternative explanations of individual choice mechanism. First of all, historical backgrounds of rational choice theory and its transition from the field of Economics to that of Political Science will be elaborated. Next, various definitions and meanings of the rational choice will be discussed. The basic assumptions of the rational choice approach with political implication will be followed. Several issues raised by rational choice theory will be followed after this discussion. This paper will suggest some of the main criticisms that have been levied against the rational choice approach. Limited empirical validity of rational choice theory and methodological individualism, which reveals innate problematic nature of the theory, will be discussed. Finally, alternative explanations of individual choice mechanism will sum up this discussion. Before elaborating its theoretical discussion, it is necessary to discuss historical backgrounds of rational choice theory. In the article, â€Å"A Genealogy of Rational Choice: Rationalism, Elitism, and Democracy†, Maloy introduces Skinner’s analysis of behaviorism as fundamental background for the discussion of rational choice theory. He argues that, â€Å"Skinner’s analysis deserves the attention of the recent debates around rational choice ecause it calls attention to the ineluctable ideological features of methodological debate† (Maloy 751). According to Maloy, Skinner could â€Å"clarify the sorts of normative force which attach to empirical theories in social sciences by a close textual analysis of some leading contributions to the behaviorist debate†, which ultimately enables the discussion of rational choice to be furthered applied into different fields of study (Maloy 751). Milton Freidman is another crucial figure that provides profound theoretical base for discussing rational choice theory. In â€Å"The Methodology of Positive Economics†, Friedman argues that people and firms make decisions that can maximize their profit under perfect information. He defended rational choice model by arguing that, â€Å"a theory should be judged by its predictive accuracy, not the realism of its assumptions† (Friedman 10). His argument provides theoretical foundations of rational choice theory in Economics, even though it is often criticized by later scholars because of its weak empirical validity and ceteris paribus nature. While rational choice theory has been dominant paradigm in Economics, it has become â€Å"adapted and adjusted in a number of ways to fit† different fields of study such as Political Science; Maloy explains that â€Å"the distinctiveness of the rational choice approach among political scientists consists, in general terms, in the use of economic models to explain and predict political behavior (Maloy 753). Maloy points out three prominent figures, Arrow, Downs, and Olson as rational choice founders especially in the field of political science. According to Maloy, Arrow’s work focuses on so called, â€Å"collective rationality whose underlying purpose is to measure collective choices using standards normally applied to individual choices (Maloy 753). Down uses Arrow’s collective rationality as the starting point of his study and â€Å"aims to articulate a behavior rule for democratic governments so that they could be included in economic theories of general equilibrium, alongside non-state agents like private firms and consumers (Maloy 754). Finally, Olson’s analysis has taken â€Å"the key elements of Arrow’s and Down’s constructs and applied them to a narrower field†; He argues that â€Å"as long as the service provided by a voluntary association is a public good on which an individual can ride-free, there is no incentive actually to take on the costs associated with joining, membership and participation, unless the marginal contribution of that individual appreciably advances the organizational cause† (Maloy 754). All three choice founders’ works have enabled rational choice theory to be in the central place of political discussion in â€Å"the creative and cross-disciplinary ways† (Maloy 755). By arguing that voting results have no specific social meaning, voting has no individual efficacy, and participation in interest group activity has no special individual efficacy, these rational choice founders could criticize unrealistic and irrational assumptions and norms of traditional democratic system and bring rational choice model to the place of political discussion from the field of Economics (Maloy 755). Rational Choice Theory generally starts with consideration of the choice behavior of individual decision-making units, which in economics are often consumers and firms. The theory suggests that the individual decision-making unit is certain larger group such as buyers or sellers in a particular market. Once individual behavior is set up, the analysis generally moves on to examine how individual choices interact to produce outcomes. Then, what does it mean by arguing that a choice is rational? In rational choice theory it means that an agent’s choices reflect the most preferred possible alternative among given opportunities. In other words, choices must reflect utility maximization. Elinor Ostrom defines rational choice theory as a guide to â€Å"understand humans as self-interested, short-term maximizers† in his work, â€Å"A Behavioral Approach to the Rational Choice Theory of Collective Action† (Ostrom 2). In the article, â€Å"The Political Psychology of Rational Choice Theory†, William H.  Riker also suggests that â€Å"the rational choice model begins with the assumption that actors know what they want and can order their wants transitively† (Riker 25). â€Å"Transitively† here means that an agent of rational choice model can do so called, â€Å"a transitive ordering†; â€Å"To know what one wants requires one to choose the best from among several goals and, failing to attain it, to choose the second best, etc† (Riker 24). This formulation of ordering enables an agent to pursue the best option with given constraints that limit choices he or she can have. In their work, â€Å"Rational Choice Theory†, Coleman and Fararo define rational choice sociologically as they use the term, â€Å"models of purposive action†, rather than rational choice; â€Å"These models rest on the assumption that actors are purposive which means they act in ways that tend to produce beneficial results† (Coleman and Fararo 21). These several definitions point out that choices pursuing utility maximization and outcomes made by these choices are key elements in rational choice theory. Then how is different when rational choice theory is applied into the field of Political Science instead of other fields of study such as Economics and Sociology? According to Riker, Economists’ main concern for rational choice is â€Å"the process and outcomes produced by voluntary exchange, where of course, all participants benefit. On the other hand, â€Å"Politics mainly concerns processes and outcomes produced by group decisions which are practically binding on those who cannot resign from the group. Thus, there can be losers and winners in politics according to Riker’s argument (Riker 24). Although Rational choice theory has long been the dominant paradigm in Economics and other fields of study, it has been subject to vigorous criticism. In â€Å"Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory†, Don Green and Ian Shapiro raises several empirical problems that rational choice theory possess; they â€Å"conclude that a number of methodological deficiencies plague empirical applications of rational choice models. They argue that, â€Å"fundamental and recurrent methodological failings rooted in the universalist aspirations that motivate so much rational choice theorizing† (Freidman 59). According to Green and Shapiro, â€Å"these mistakes stem from a method-driven rather than a problem-driven approach to research, in which practitioners are more eager to vindicate one or another universalist model than to understand and explain actual political outcomes† (Friedman 59). Green and Shapiro’s argument can be summarized into three propositions; â€Å"there is a list of methodological characteristics that are undesirable in an empirical science and are thus to be avoided. † â€Å"Empirical applications of rational choice theory are more likely to commit these mistakes than other types of empirical analysis in political science. â€Å"These pathologies are not due to and historical coincidence, but are rooted in fundamental characteristics of rational choice theory, especially its universalist aspirations and the lack of specificity in the rational actor assumption† (Freidman 60). These propositions suggest that rational choice theory has its empirical limit for testing and predicting actual political outcomes. In detail, Green and Shapiro point out several problems of rational choice theory that possibly undermines the empirical validity of the theory itself. Post hoc theory development† known to statisticians as â€Å"curve fitting† is one of these problems that rational choice theory contains. Green and Shapiro â€Å"contend that rather than formulating bold predictions that are falsifiable by empirical evidence, rational choice theorist tend first to look at the empirical evidence, then design a rational choice model that fits it† (Friedman 5). Another problem raised by Green and Shapiro is rational choice theorists’ engagement in â€Å"arbitrary domain restriction† (Friedman 5). As discussed earlier, certain restrictions or constraints enable â€Å"a transitive ordering† in rational choice theory. Green and Shapiro argue that these constraints and restrictions are defined in ambiguous ways in rational choice model, which ultimately makes the empirical validity of the theory weakened. Green and Shapiro’s examination of the phenomenon of voting behavior is another major example that shows these problems rational choice theory innately possesses. â€Å"In a real-world election with a large electorate, it is instrumentally irrational for anyone to case a ballot, since no single vote has more than an infinitesimal chance of deciding the outcome. Whether one favors selfish or selfless ends, virtually any activity in pursuit of those ends would be more effective than the time spent on voting and on educating oneself about candidates and issues. Yet hundreds of millions of people do vote. For rational choice theory, this would appear to be a gigantic anomaly† (Friedman 6); As noted earlier, rational choice theory presumes that an agent of the model seeks best possible outcomes to maximize his or her utility in given constraints. However, according to Green and Shapiro, in a real-world voting behavior does not confirm this assumption of rational choice theory where voters cast a ballot without having enough time to assess or predict its possible outcome and realizing whether his or her action of voting maximize benefit or not. Another issue raised by Green and Shapiro is free riding problem; While voters can easily pursue a free riding action on the efforts of others to help the cause succeed, there is no need for people to devote resources of time and money to cause desired results. In other words, â€Å"rational choice theory would seem to be refuted not only by people who vote, but by those who contribute small amounts of money to political campaigns, attend rallies, and engage in other forms of collective action designed to secure goals whose achievement is independent of the efforts of any single participant† (Friedman 7). As seen from Green and Shapiro’s founding, most criticisms of rational choice theory seem to be that the assumptions of the theory are not literally and completely true. No model can pass such a test, as all theories abstract from reality in certain way. Determining the empirical validity of a model would therefore seem to involve an examination of both feasibility of assumptions and conformity with real-world data. The most basic assumption of rational choice theory is that the primary unit of analysis is the individual decision-maker. Those who believe that groups are fundamental have criticized this assumption. This issue of so called, â€Å"methodological individualism† are dealt in many contexts in the social sciences. In the book, â€Å"Rational Choice Theory: Advocacy and Critique†, Coleman and Fararo argues that models of purposive action or rational choice model can be useful in explaining and predicting human behavior. They further their argument by saying that â€Å"because the values and beliefs of individuals are shaped primarily by the socializing influences of society, especially as mediated through social relationships with significant other, an understanding of the culture and structure of societies and of the positions of individuals within them is necessary† (Coleman and Fararo 22). According to Coleman and Fararo, major problem for applying rational choice model particularly into Economics and Political Science, in which the primary interest has been in aggregate level outcomes, â€Å"is that the postulate of purposive action has been linked to arbitrary and narrow assumptions about what individuals value and believe† (Coleman Fararo 33). Also the assumption that human behavior is narrowly self-interested and the use of the term rationality to refer to the efficient pursuit of economic benefits has often produced incorrect assumption that rational choice model are innately egoistic; â€Å"that they regard individuals as calculating the expected benefit to themselves of alternative lines of action and acting accordingly (Coleman and Fararo 34). Recent empirical evidences suggest that human beings are capable of acting in ways for the interests of others or the social group above their self-interest, which implies that the assumption of individual’s pursuit of self-interest does not match with reality. Coleman and Fararo further their discussion of this â€Å"methodological individualism† by arguing that a social norm can be one primary example, which refutes the basic assumption of rational choice model. According to Coleman and Fararo, â€Å"When a social norm is know to have been violated, some type of formal or informal sanction will result† (Coleman Fararo 35). Formal sanction like a legal code or a set of rules and informal sanction like a disapproval or social ostracism would affect individual’s choice making process. Therefore, unlike the basic assumption of rational choice model suggests that human behavior is oriented from self-interest, by the effect of social norms and values, individuals can consequently act in altruistic or selfless way for pursuing the interests of groups they are involved in. Because of its limit and problematic nature of rational choice theory, the need for alternative explanation has become necessary for many scholars who criticize the theory. Dennis Chong provides some insights for the possible alternative of rational choice theory in his article, â€Å"Rational Choice Theory’s Mysterious Rivals†. According to Chong, even though Green and Shapiro’s critique against rational choice theory has failed to provide complete form of alternative explanation, there are some theoretical debates and discussions that suggest possible theoretical replacement or revision. Chong argues that, â€Å"Green and Shapiro occasionally allude to the influence of social-psychological and moral factors† such as group loyalties, emotions, political identities, ideology, obligation, and altruism (Friedman 47). As found in Coleman and Fararo’s arguments that institutional or social factors can affect individual’s choice making process, many scholars further their discussion of this social motivation as the alternative of rational choice theory. In his article, â€Å"When Rationality Fails†, Michael Taylor argues that social identification and intrinsic motivation can explain some of significant social phenomenon and collective action that has been ignored by rational choice theory; â€Å"If a person defines herself as a member of a group, or if her membership in a group is made cognitively salient, then she is more likely to observe the group’s norms and cooperate with group members in social dilemmas† (Friedman 230). For intrinsic motivation, Taylor explains that there are some activities that are intrinsically motivating people to be participated such as interesting work, volunteering, and political activities. In this case the activity itself or enjoyment of that activity is the reward for people. When extrinsic rewards like money are introduced, intrinsic motivation would diminish (Friedman 231). By suggesting the concept of social identification and intrinsic motivation, problems of rational choice model for explaining some collective action can be resolved. In this paper, a sense of how rational choice theory works and of its methodological foundations has been introduced. It has also been noticed that rational choice theory is not an ultimate answer. The theory is subject to a number of criticisms, but there is no doubt that its influence in various fields of study have brought tremendous amounts of theoretical debates, and increased the depth of economic, sociological, and political discussions. It is impossible to attain complete knowledge about anything, especially social phenomena. However, it is certain that rational choice approach is one of most crucial theoretical resources for human beings to explore and examine to gain this ultimate answer. It can be useful or misleading, depending on how it is treated. It is responsibility of remaining and future scholars and people to correctly apply and use this theory with open-minded attitude.

William Golding s Lord Of The Flies - 1613 Words

William Golding: Lord of the Flies Golding, William. Lord of the Flies. New York: Penguin Group. 1954. Print. William Golding’s acclaimed novel, Lord of the Flies, follows the adventure of a clan of British adolescents stranded on a coral reef island. With no adults left alive, the diverse personality’s between the main characters Ralph, Piggy, Jack, and Simon struggle with the freedom from authority. This tale begins when Ralph, a fair haired twelve year old, awakes after the fatal plane crash and discovers the jungle and sandy beach where the abundance of boys will now strive. There he meets Piggy, an overweight boy with glasses as thick as bottle caps. Upon their first meeting, it is learned that the boys were being evacuated from the†¦show more content†¦Soon it is learned that Jack is weary of killing the pig as he lets it escape but now has the taste for blood. In hopes for being rescued the boys build a fire to try and attract a ship or plane. The plan does not work although, because a ship passes while the fire is out. Leaving the boys with a sense of hopelessness. Ralph focused on building shelters and trying to build a signal fire again, reflects opposite on Jack’s behavior of needing to hunt not for food, but to kill. After the ship passes Ralph calls a meeting where it is learned the younger of the kids are scared of a so called ‘beastie’ w hich scares the others. Convinced and denying Ralph’s reasoning of that there’s no beast, one child suggests that it hides in the water during the day, causing a breeze of anxiety to flow through the clan. One night, while all of the boys are sleeping military fighting planes have a battle over the island and leaves a dead soldier in a parachute to land on the island. Sam and Eric, being on fire duty to keep it lit, heard the parachute â€Å"fifteen yards away from them came the plopping noise of fabric blown open† (98). Thinking it is the beast the twins run back to the camp in terror and insist the beast has attacked them. Jack and Ralph trek up the mountain to see and hunt the beast and discover the parachute. By then another meeting is held The most understandable theme Golding displays is the contrasting